Viewing constructivism as a different perspective from objectivism on the learning process and a complementary learning tool with objectivism, Jonassen (1999) proposed a model for designing constructivist learning environments. Since the epistemological belief of the constructivism that knowledge can not be transmitted, the design puts the emphasis on providing learning experiences that facilitate knowledge construction and in meaning making.

1. Jonassesn (1999) described that the essential components in the constructivist learning environments include:
   Problem, question or project as the focus of the environment: the focus on problem, question or project constitutes a learning goal driving the learning process. The desired quality of this driving power is to be interesting, relevant and authentic. Three major components need to be included in the design of the problem:

• The problem context: a description of the physical, organization, and sociocultural context in which the problem occur should be represented to the learners.
• The problem representation or simulation: the principle of representing the problem is to make the representation interesting, appealing and engaging. The representation of the problem needs to be authentic to "present the same types of cognitive challenges as those in the real world,"as well as to be interesting and relevant to the learners so that they can engage in solving the problems.
• The problem manipulation space: meaningful learning needs to be a mindful activity, in which the learners are provided opportunities to manipulate objects and interact with the environment. The problem manipulation spaces exactly provide such opportunities. They can be the causal models for students to test the effects of the manipulation by receiving feedback in the changes of the physical objects or the simulation, or they can be the students' argumentation to support their solutions to problems.

2. Related Cases: Representing a set of related experience, the related cases support learning by scaffolding student memory; providing different perspectives, themes and interpretations, the related cases conveys the complexity of the problem and enhance student cognitive flexibility.
3. Information Resources: CLEs have to provide just-in-time information to help learners comprehend and solve the problem.
4. Cognitive Tools: Cognitive tools are computer tools that help "visualize (represent), organize, automate, or supplant thinking skills." There are four major types of tools differing in their functions:

• Problem/Task Representation Tools: they help learners to visualize and construct the mental model about how the objects behave and interact.
• Static and dynamic Knowledge Modeling Tools: the tools help the learners' to make their understanding of the problem explicit. The questions of "what do I know" and "what does it mean" are the center of the inquiry.
• Performance Support Tools: the tools share the cognitive loads to perform routine tasks, such as calculation and memorization.
• Information Gathering Tools: Information searching tools can be provided to eliminate the distraction and help the students to focus on problem solving.
• Conversation and Collaborative Tools: social negotiation and interaction are part of the learning process. Learning can facilitated through support of discourse community, knowledge-building community and communities of learners.
• Social/Contextual Support: the implementation of the design of any learning environment has to accommodate contextual factors to get support for its success.

In the constructivist learning environments, learners are encouraged to engage exploration, articulation and reflection; instructors are encouraged to provide instructional support in

• Modeling, which focuses on the expert's performance (how to do it): including modeling the performance and the thinking processes, i.e. behavioral and cognitive modeling
• Coaching, which focuses on the learner's performance (how am I doing): to motivational prompts, monitor and regulate the learner's performance, provoke reflection, and perturb learners' models
• Scaffolding, which is a systemic approach to supporting the learners in different aspects of the learning environment (the tasks, the teacher, the learner, the materials, the tools): based on learner's level of understanding and need, adjust task difficulty, restructure the task and provide alternative assessments.

Reigeluth (1999) pointed out the major contribution of this model is that it provides a coherent instructional framework integrating much work in the contructivist arena.

Behaviorism

• Skinner's Programmed Instruction
• Keller's Personalized System of Instruction (PSI)

Cognitivism

• Gagné Nine Events
• Reigeluth's Elaboration Theory
• Component Display Theory (CDT)
• Instructional Transaction Theory (ITT)

Constructivism

• Anchored Instruction
• Case-Based Reasoning
• Cognitive Flexibility Theory (CFT)
• Jonassen's Constructivist Learning Environments (CLEs)
• Mayer's SOL
• Open-Ended Learning Environments (OELEs)
• Perkins and Unger's Teaching and Learning for Understanding (TfU)
• Problem-Based Learning (PBL)
• Situated Learning