Steps of Problem Solving

The problem identfication (actual vs. anticipated; sensory vs. emotional)

Theoretical orientation (hypothetical statement: i.e. "why and how")

Psychological assessment:

--Initial Interview

-- Behavior Observation

-- Testing

Intervention strategies

Initial Interview

Definition: Interviewing is face-to -face verbal encounters or exchange which is carefully planned, deliberately and skillfully executed and goal-oriented throughout.

Interview is more purposefull and organized than just conversation, but less formalized and standardized than a psychological test.

Types of Initial Interview

Case-history interview (concrete facts, dates, events, etc.)

Diagnostic interview (expression, posture, mood and emotions, intellect, abnormal mental trends)

Pretest & Psttest Interview (administering personality test)

Crisis Interview (deflect potential for disaster and prevent crisis)

Pretherapy interview (elicitation of specific information)

Interviewing Techniques

Rapport "When the atmosphere is permissive, reasonable harmonious, and characterized by mutual interest, the interviewing relationship is described as en rapport" Berg,1954

Communication: *language, *silence, *listening, *questions, *non-verbal communication

Computer Interview

The use of Questions (Ward,1976)

Open-ended questions

Facilitative Comments

Confronting questions

Direct questions

Art & Science of Interviewing (Matarazzo,1965)

Freud, Sallivan Roger's interviewing styles

Non-Verbal Communication (Leathers)

It is major determination of meaning in the interpersonal contex (i.e. voice, facial expression, body movement)

convey feeling and enotions more accurately than verbal cues

convey meaning and intentions free of deception, distortion, confusion (i.e. less under concious control)

less redundancy, repetition and the like

gestures as clarification of meaning.

Behavior Observation

Behavior is observable across:

-- vocal (e.g. sighing, tonality, intensity)

--facial expression (e.g. grimaccing)

--gesture (e.g. rubbing)

---posture: *excessive stiffness, *compensatory positioning, referred to bracing or guarding

--locomotion (e.g. limping)

--specific skillful activity: *smooth vs. irratic patters, *range of motion (i.e. amplitude)

*obvious assimetry, *abnormal speed, *accuracy, *whole body vs. localized movement

Naturalistic Observation

Purpose- ...to determine the frequency, strength and pervasiveness of the problem behavior or the factors that are maintaining it...

Mechanics of rating-coding:

-- identify the unit of rating

-- dimension of intensity

-- duration of sampling

-- frequency count

Camera used observation

- Qualitative vs. Quantitative analysis

Ecological validity of observation (Brunswik,1947)

Personality Inventories

Eysenck (EPI) - neuroticism & introversion (r = .50)

State-Trait Anxiety Inventory (STAI) Spielberger & Lushene,1970;

Profile of Mood State (POMS) - McNair, Lorr & Droppleman,1971;

- tension, dpresssion, anger, vigor, fatigue, confusion, total mood disturbance

Athletic Motivation Inventory (AMI) - Tutko, Ogilvie (1969);

- ability to cope with emotional stress

- dedication to the coach and sport

- desire to be successful in athletics

Sport Competition Anxiety Test (SCAT) - Martens,1977;

- "tendency to perceive competitive situation as threatening and to respond with feelings of apprehension or tension" Ludvig,1981

Testing Outcomes

16PF - Significant differences among athletes for factors: B,Q1,C; (Ogilvie,1970)

...significant correlation (r = .50) between extroversion and success in sport (Morgan,1980)

EPI - No differences among athletes and non-athletes (Zaichkowsky,1983)

STAI - Significant increase in state anxiety in response to competitive stress (Klavora,1975)

SCAT - Significantly related with pregame state anxiety (Bernando,1982)

Strategies for Improving the Observation Reliability

Decide on target behaviors that are both relevant and comprehensive.

be familiar with the objective standardized observable format.

strictly specify the unit of analysis, scoring scheme, rating scale etc...

be aware of potential sources of error in the observations as bias and like.

consider the possibilities for reactivity (i.e. influence of awareness that one is being observed)

carefully consider how representative the observation (in terms of generalization)

16PF Cattel's Personality Test

Personality may only be understood when individual is viewed in a given situation

Personality traits exist at least in two levels: R = f(S,P)

Primary factors vs. secondary factors

Surface vs. 16 source traits

Temperament (stylistic tendencies "chronic irritable","easygoing" etc...)

Ability traits (intellegence & skill)

Dynamic traits motivation, interests, ergs "temporary emotional states"

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