Unfortunately, the gravity of high-stakes testing has squeezed some critical components of a social studies program outside of the classroom.  School districts tend to focus on reading, writing, math, and most recently science--subjects that are being tested to reflect the effectiveness of schools.  The question is: what can a teacher do to make sure social studies is taught?  Social studies is a patriotic subject that reflects the history and laws of lands, the attitudes of many peoples, and the sense of civic values in which students are best able to uphold the "...duties of citizenship in a participatory democracy"  (NCSS, 2009).  As a pre-service teacher I know the value of social studies education within the classroom because of my own experiences as a student and my recent knowledge of theory and curriculum.  It is my responsibility to allow my students to experience those opportunities.

            In order to make sure social studies is taught I am a firm believer in the power of subject integration.  Math, science, reading, and writing can all be taught with an emphasis on social studies.  Ideally, I will teach social studies at least three days per week.  However, if this is impossible to do, I will teach social studies within other subjects as a means of integrating subjects.  A wonderful activity that would integrate social studies and writing would be the creation of a classroom Constitution.  This activity would best benefit 5^th and 6^th grade students.  The students would study the Constitution of the United States of America--the people who drafted the supreme law and the historical time period--and then they would create a classroom Constitution outlining the rights of the teacher and the students.  This particular activity aligns with my firm belief in the teacher philosophy of Essentialism.  I believe that there is a certain amount of "core knowledge" that students need to know and understand in order to be productive participants within our ever-globalized nation.  However, my teaching ideologies and beliefs tend to straddle all four of the major teaching philosophies:  Essentialism, Existentialism, Progressivism, and Perennialism.  Overall, social studies cannot be overlooked in the classrooms of today.  I will end with this powerful quote:  "Dynamic social studies is based on a conviction that civic education is fundamental to the preservation of our constitutional democracy and, therefore, the primary component of all education in the United States " (Maxim, p. 211).  Its is paramount to the future productiveness of our citizens.

 Maxim, G.  (2005).  Dynamic Social Studies For Constructivist Classrooms:  Inspiring Tomorrow's Social Scientists

Chapter 6: The Learning Cycle: Teacher Scaffolded Social Constructivism

Summary:

            A detailed vignette of Ms. Rahimi and her sixth grade class introduced the chapter--an example of how constructivism can be the primary educational approach for student learning.  Jean Piaget was a philosopher and scientist who studied the minds of children through their cognitive stages of development (from birth to adolescence).  All children have "specialized mental structures" that they use to classify or organize their knowledge.  This is called 'schemata.'  Piaget found that as children develop, their schema tend to change and adapt to their new knowledge, referred to as 'adaptation.'  However, adaptation does not take place without the following three components:  assimilation, equilibrium, and disequilibrium.

Assimilation- "the mental process that takes place when individuals attempt to integrate new life experiences into an existing schema--in other words, trying to link a new experience to something that already know."

Equilibrium- when a child makes a meaningful connection then their state of "cognitive comfort" is in balance, or stable.

Disequilibrium- when a child is unable to establish a connection  to their already existing schema, then their state of "cognitive comfort" is unbalanced

 Constructivist learning is "strategic problem-solving process by which learners are intrinsically driven to construct meaning from a new learning challenge" (p.267).

Social Constructivism- teacher-peer, peer-peer collaboration, and a variety of materials/tools for exploration that lead to "initiative, experimentation, and collaboration."

-         physical tools versus mental tools  (must be passed from generation to generation)

 Vygotsky- language and learning are intertwined

-         Zones of Development (zone of actual development, ZAD & zone of proximal development, ZPD)

-         Scaffolding = necessary within the ZPD! (adult help/guide/assistance)

 Teacher's Role within a Social Constructivist Classroom?

-          positive interactions, and the classroom is a "community of learners"

-          Learning Cycle- "a commonly suggested teaching approach designed to facilitate learning through a teacher's supportive assistance" (student-centered)

                        1.  Exploration   2.  Concept/skill development   3.  Concept/skill application

 Exploration- makes connections to students' previous experiences, motivates students,       

establish the purpose/goal, WOW factor!

-       -    classroom discussions and questions: existing knowledge, thought association, rapid recognition, quick lesson review, open-ended questions

--         utilizing manipulatives, REALIA (real things), multimedia (gain student interest!)

-          use of diagrams, charts, word sorts, other visual displays/images

-         Make sure the students know WHY they are learning what they are learning (need a sense of purpose for the material to become memorable)

Concept/Skill Development-  "builds on the exploration phase by putting forward the main experience that will develop the concept or skill more fully" (teacher assists students)

-         Teacher must master the basic content/understandings/big ideas prior to teaching

-         Teacher must know how to organize the content in the most meaningful manner for student learning to take place (sequential, chronological, etc.)

-         Factstorming- what is important/relevant to topic?

-         Helping children to acquire skills (map reading, outlining information, using computer programs, planning an interview etc.)

-         Materials/Resources made available (enactive versus iconic versus symbolic)

-          Learning and language are essential- students must be able to communicate their thoughts!  (instructional conversations!) Page 297 lists the "art of questioning"

-         Graphic organizers

Concept/Skill Application Phase- "students have the opportunity to apply and practice a new skill or concept through special projects or independent activities"

-          creativity/choice/alternative projects (students display what they have learned)

-          teacher- "enriching, reinforcing, extending" the concepts/skills ( VARIETY & CREATIVITY)

-        

Quotes:

"A major element of constructivist teaching is to make available absorbing materials and intriguing situations that appeal to the child's spontaneous and real activity" (p. 267).

"Adults or more competent/knowledgeable peers might provide this assistance to enable students to execute tasks within their ZPD" (p. 269).

"The learning cycle is a student-centered teaching approach intended to crate conceptual change through interactions within the social environment" (p. 271).

"The instructional model is based on the idea that learning occurs in a social context; therefore, the classroom must be thought of as a community of learners who build knowledge together" (p. 270).

 Questions, Claims, and Evidence, Chapter 8

           This chapter addresses the importance of students having access to many different sources of information.  They categorize information into two groups:  internal and external experts.  Information from students or student groups in the classroom are referred to as internal experts and any information not from the classroom is external expert.  External examples would be guest speakers, internet resources, textbooks, videos, and magazines.  Access to print is when a teacher makes nonfiction trade books available within her classroom, and they stay in her classroom throughout the year.  "Think alouds," "stop and shares," and other forms of group discussion and talk facilitate the internal expert source of information.  In order for the students and the teacher to determine progress or a conceptual change in ideas, it is "vital that students record their initial understanding in some way" (p. 113).  "Quick Writes," graphic organizers, concept maps, and pre/posttests help to capture those initial thoughts.  After learning information, students need to be able to share, or show their newfound knowledge.  Teachers should be creative and flexible in creating prompts or activities that will help showcase or demonstrate the students' knowledge.  Lastly, the teacher must be adept at assessing student writing or alternative projects.  How do you know that your students learned something?  What was the big idea or the conceptual understanding?  The teacher should consider the range of sources for that assessment can come from.  Overall, the more writing in science the better!

"A conceptual understanding provides an opportunity for students to show the relationship between facts and the application of those relationships to a new situation" (p. 119).

Ready, Set, Science, Chapter 8

            Chapter 8 summarizes the big ideas and concepts that had been presented in the previous chapters.  The text is supported by acclaimed research within science education.  Once the objectives, standards, and goals are defined for both students and teachers, then the resources and materials must be made available.  Teachers must commit themselves to the latest content, pedagogy, technology, and learning instruction.  Science is not a discipline that is set in stone, but instead, it changes with time.  The most successful science programs will be built upon the intertwined four strands of proficiency.  The chapter focuses on the standards, curricula, instruction, assessments, and professional development, when implementing a meaningful science program.  Teachers, like students, are "investigators and learners."  They have a responsibility to themselves to focus on inquiry throughout every process.  As a teacher I will focus on the content knowledge, the ways in which students best learn science, my pedagogy as to how I will teach science, and the ways that I will educate myself in support of my classroom.  Since many schools do not have successful and high-priority science programs in place, it is the responsibility of the entire school-wide community of administrators, curriculum writers, and teachers to take a stand in favor of supporting science learning

"As research has made clear, teachers have not had access to the kinds of professional learning opportunities necessary for effective science teaching" (162).

Connections:

            I enjoyed chapter 8 of Questions, Claims, and Evidence, because I was able to relate my latest ideas for my unit plans to the book's ideas.  I like the references and examples to the "initial understandings" part of the book.  By giving students a Quick, Draw, Write, or by having them write down their "Before" knowledge or feelings about a particular subject, you are later able to see the transformation in their thinking.  Additionally, I think it is important to expose students to internal and external sources of expert knowledge.  Although this was not mentioned in the text, I would also want my students to be able to differentiate between what is fact and what is opinion.  Sometimes students take everything they read for being true, or fact.  However, this is certainly not the case, especially when students speak to other peers or read magazines and newspapers.  By exposing children to multiple sources, you are helping to think critically and to analyze those sources.  They are able to compare and contrast their own ideas or beliefs with others.  Especially with science and social studies, I do not want my students to take my word as the only right or wrong answer.  I want them to explore the concepts and dig up the facts for themselves.  Luckily, this is all a part of inquiry--the big concept when I will be teaching science.

Question:

Given the variability within the ways that students demonstrate their science learning (authentic assessments/written papers/projects etc.) what is the best way to assess those projects?  Does there always need to be a summative assessment at the end of a lesson/unit or may a formative assessment be acceptable, if not just as useful?

"Celebrating the Life and Legacy of Rosa Parks" by Loraine Stewart

            This particular article addresses the ways in which teachers can and should provide students with a variety of ways (literature) to examine and analyze the major historical events within our nation.  Too often than not, teachers look at history through a one-way lens and they pass on inaccurate facts and/or myths to the students.  For example, the article focuses on Rosa Parks and the misleading ways that educators often portray her.  It is the "Rosa was tired and passive" myth or the belief that she was set up by others to stage her protest and arrest.  However, none of these are true.  Well before the Montgomery Bus Boycott, Rosa Parks was a fervent activist and leader within the African American community.  She was a member of the Montgomery chapter of the NAACP, one of the few black women registered to vote, and was an optimist supporter of desegregation within the schools.  The fact is, the myths tend to cloud over the facts for some reason or another.  In order for students to gain a broader perspective about Rosa Parks and her involvement within the Civil Rights Movement--not just the Montgomery Bus Boycotts--the newest children's books regarding her story "acknowledge the broader context of her life's story." 

The following books have been recommended by Loraine Stewart:

Rosa by Nikki Giovanni; picture book

Don't Know Much About Rosa Parks by Kenneth Davis; answer and question format (grades 3-7)

Dear Mrs. Parks.  A Dialogue with Today's Youth; compilation of students letters with questions to Parks, 3^rd person account

If A Bus Could Talk by Faith Ringgold; historical fiction that accurately portrays Civil Rights Movement and the Boycott

"The Brown v. Board of Education Decision"

           By middle school the majority of students have encountered the historical case, Brown v. Board of Education.  However, how many of those students can tell you more about the case besides the typical "Brown v. Board of Education overturned Plessy v. Ferguson...stating that separate but equal facilities for whites and for blacks was no longer allowed."  Students understand the case based upon rote memorization of the most basic facts.  This particular articles address that landmark case in more depth.  It also provides wonderful resources for 5^th and 6^th grade students as they study the Civil Rights Movement in America.  Students must be adept at examining and analyzing primary and secondary sources.  History can be told through sources just as much as it can be "retold" through the textbooks.  The websites provide historical background information, in-depth context, a variety of teaching activities and lessons, reproducible worksheets, and a plethora of topics that will teach students (and teachers) about the landmark Supreme Court case!

Rosa Parks Myth: Books for Everyone

            Whether you are looking for a historical fiction book, descriptive biography, brilliant picture book, or a "quick and neat" fact book, there is a Rosa Parks book that fits every one of those categories.  Over sixty-years have passed since the infamous Montgomery Bus Boycott.  Rosa Parks has become and will continue to be one of the most historical figures in our nation's history--especially during the Civil Rights Movement.  It does not comes as a surprise to me that she would be the topic of so many adult, young adult, and children's books.  Personally, I have read Eloise Greenfield's Rosa Parks and I was captivated by the amount of information that I had not previously known.  Before reading that book, I myself, was victim to the "Rosa weak and tired myth"--I am ashamed to say.  Therefore, I know the importance of the saying, "you cannot believe everything you hear."  I firmly believe that if you are in charge of your own learning (which all adults should be) then it is up to you to educate yourself using a variety of resources, experiences, and discussions with other people.  As a teacher it is up to me to help my students learn.  I provide the activities, the lessons, the stimulation, and the experiences.  Although one book may read one way, another book about the exact same subject will read another way.  By giving my students multiple resources, viewpoints, and perspectives, I am helping them to become active participants in their learning.  They become more adept at critical thinking, analyzing, and debating.  Overall, I hope I am able to introduce my students to a Rosa Parks unit because of my own interest in her life and the ways that she impacted the world around her.  When that time comes I will already have a handful of resources and ideas.

Questions, Claims, Evidence, Chapter 7

            In a classroom full of twenty or so curious students, there are bound to be many types of evidence floating around the room.  Many students do not naturally "pick up" on the ability to analyze evidence.  The teacher should model the best way to analyze information and to make a claim.  By analyzing evidence within a whole-group setting, students become more comfortable analyzing their evidence independently.  The teacher's role is that of a negotiator once students choose a claim.  It is important for students to share their claim and evidence with their peers.  Constructive feedback from peers allows students to justify their reasons even more and it facilitates a debate-like atmosphere (essential to critical thinking).  Every student should have the opportunity to voice his or her opinion so that they may "negotiate new meanings and question old understandings" (p. 104).

"But remember, learning is about negotiations and if we don't let students think about what they've just done, they'll do exactly what they have been told to do--hurry up and find an answer" (p. 94).

Ready, Set, Science, Chapter 7

            The teacher has a great responsibility within the classroom because he or she supports the learning of his or her students and allows them to engage with the many faucets of inquiry.  When designing units or activities, the teacher should relate the processes to the big ideas or concepts.  Additionally, everything should be relevant and meaningful to the students.  Although some topics may be meaningless to students (based upon their lack of experiences with that topic), teachers CAN make the information meaningful by carefully planning their instruction in a sequential manner.  Additionally, students must be able to build off their prior knowledge and develop their new skills and theoretical knowledge as they advance within their lessons.  Today, the majority of science classrooms run off of "activity-mania" atmospheres.  The classrooms tend to be very teacher-centered and "cook-book" like--everything is laid out step-by-step.  However, this particular textbook has focused on the ways to structure student thinking that support inquiry and student-centered learning.  The teacher should help every student feel a part of the science community.  One way to do that would be to assign roles within the processes of the science classroom.  Students should also have opportunities to reflect upon science and the concepts that they are learning.

The point of the theory chart was to reinforce the notion that science involves a process of revising thinking over time as new evidence arises" (p. 139).

Connections: 

Chapter 7 in Ready, Set, Science has been my favorite chapter of the book so far.  It was a summative chapter--meaning, it contained many of the core ideas that had been discussed in the previous chapters.  It was not overly "wordy" or hard to understand.  As a future teacher, I feel as though it succinctly presented worthwhile and meaningful information.  Sequential instruction is necessary within every grade.  Students need to learn the prerequisite skills or knowledge before learning something of a higher level.  The same is true for anything that I learn.  When I am introduced to a concept or theory that requires the use of additional knowledge that I have not yet learned, I become frustrated.  I am sure that a child would feel the same way.  In order to maximize a student's learning, sequential and sometimes-chronological presentation of material is essential!  I also enjoyed the reference to "activity-mania" classrooms because of my knowledge of the term (after reading the article within class).  Lastly, I found the metacognition chart on page 143 interesting.  Immediately my eyes gravitated towards the 3^rd grade roles because of my placement within a 3^rd grade classroom.  As I read everything about science in the classroom I become more excited to roll up my sleeves and put it to practice within the real world.

Question:  After being in the classroom for two science lessons, I have noticed how the students tend to get off task with the materials used for the activity.  What is the best way to stress appropriate behavior within the science classroom, any tips or tricks?

 Campbell, Chapter 6

            Science notebooks promote literacy within three areas: oral communication, reading, and writing (73).  The processes of science promote oral communication between the students and the teachers.  Students discuss their ideas with classmates, pose questions to the teacher and other students and share their evidence with others.  The students utilize their notebooks for recoding evidence, data, charts, and other graphs, and they also use them for reflection.  By reading the notebooks and by sharing peer notebooks with one another, they are able to practice and improve on their reading skills.  Additionally, the science notebooks provide students with the opportunities to use their science vocabularies.  Lastly, the Standards for the English Language Arts can be applied to the science processes as long as the teacher provides those opportunities for reading, writing, and oral communication.

"Many times students write for others; however, within their notebooks, they are writing for their own needs and using the information they collect to share with others" (80).

Questions, Claims, Evidence, Chapter 6

            Just as Chapter 5 discussed what makes a good question, chapter 6 talks about how good questions lead to evidence.  In order to categorize and prioritize questions, it is a good idea to use a chart or a graphic organizer for the students' questions.  "The SWH template is a tool to help students negotiate meaning" (82).  It can be changed and adapted to meet the teacher's goals for his/her classroom.  After the question is written, the students need to proper materials to investigate the big idea, and then they need collaborative discussion in order to create a "test" for their question.  The investigation of the tests should be active and almost "chaotic" within the classroom.  It is important for student to distinguish between what is evidence and what is opinion.  As a teacher, I believe it is important to ask open-ended questions so that students may think critically and ask their questions.

"Remember: Each of us is different in how we teach, and, thus, how we use the strategies will vary.  Keep practicing to build a series of practices that work for you and your students" (p. 92).

-        ( on the various charts, graphs, activities presented in the book for teacher use (use as templates))

Ready, Set, Science, Chapter 6

            Chapter six talks about the use of models within the classroom.  Models help students to visualize a certain concept, an abstract idea, data and evidence, and anything else that they are learning within the unit.  It is important for students to understand and recognize the characteristics of models.  There is not one model that works for one particular unit.  Models may be charts, graphs, diagrams, pictures, and anything else that conveys meaning.  Using models within science helps to change the common science misconceptions that students hold.  The use of models was discussed in the 1^st grade, 3^rd grade, and 5^th grade.   From that use--"Researchers observed characteristic shifts from an early emphasis on models that used literal depiction toward representations that were progressively more symbolic in character" (p. 117).  Overall, the use of models within classrooms mimics the way that scientists use models to represent their ideas, evidence, and data. 

"Students need opportunities to build models and representations that suit particular explanatory and communicative purposes. They need experience refining and improving models and representations, experience that can be facilitated by critically examining the qualities of multiple models or representations for a given purpose" (p. 125).

 Connections:

I think it is very important for students to be able to distinguish between what is evidence and what is opinion.  This is applicable to more than science, too.  Social studies is a discipline where students must be able to distinguish between what is fact and what is opinion.  If students are unable to decipher between the two then misconceptions often arise.  However, when those misconceptions are evident, which I am sure they will be, model representations can be used to help eliminate misunderstandings of confusion.  Models convey meaning in many different ways which helps to play on the strengths of students who learn differently or through different mediums.  In my upper elementary science classes I remember making many bar graphs or pie charts.  We always had pads of grid paper in our desks.  We were also reminded to label the axis' and to title the graph or else we would receive no credit for our work.

 Question:  Is it a good idea to do a read-a-loud as an introduction to a science unit?  I know that there are wonderful children's books that relate to big science concepts.

Chapter 3: Young Historians: Coming Face to Face With the Past

Summary:

History is a narrative or story of the past (historians study the past)

Historical Method (3)

            1.  locating pertinent information about a past event

            2.  examining the informational sources for accuracy

            3.  organizing this information into a well-constructed historical narrative

(written sources)  books, journals, records, newspaper articles, etc. (p. 87)

(nonwritten sources)  physical artifacts, visual images, oral and audio

Primary versus Secondary Sources: children need to the differences!

What should students know/be able to do?  The National Center for History in the Schools (1996) has content standards (4 topics) K-4 grade

            1.  living and working together in families/communities, now and long ago

            2.  the history of student s' own state or region

            3.  the history of the United States

            4.  the history of peoples of many cultures around the world

How to teach the information?  Integration is key!  Literature, documents, media, field trips, special days/celebrations! 

Historical Narratives tell stories through the connections of real world events that have occurred:  historical fiction, biographies, folk literature  (Children should be exposed to narratives but they should also write their own narratives!)  Textbooks can also be forms of historical literature. 

How to select well-written historical narratives?  (5 guidelines on pg. 98)

Resources to consider using: Notable Children's Trade Books for Young People, Social Studies and the Young Learner, An Annotated Bibliography of Historical Fiction

How to write a biography?  1.  Realistic description of the time when and place where the person lived 2. Accurate characterization of the person 3. A careful accounting of the significant events in the person's life  4.  Values and interests influencing the person to act as he or she did

*Writing within social studies is a great way to integrate subjects (reading, writing, and social studies) 

The Storypath Approach by Maria Stanitis (pg. 111 and on)

-       Researching, Rehearsing, Drafting, Revising, Publishing (the story creation process)

Written Evidence:  documents, letters, journal and diaries

Classroom Idea = classroom newspapers (mimic the process of publishing, jobs, duties, etc.)  History writing opportunities (p. 126)

Oral History: interviews

Nonwritten Evidence:  all nonwritten objects "accidental survivors" (very few intentionally preserved to survive)  Museum field trips may be essential!

Chronology- knowing the order of events, need to understand chronology in order to understand historical causality!

            Event Chains, Timelines, Other Sequences

Quotes:

"A historian studies the evidence, examines it for accuracy, and then pieces it together to the best of her or his ability as a written narrative" (p.89).

"The experiences of other times enlighten us with the knowledge required to figure out solutions to present and future challenges" (p.91).

"One reason why history is so tricky to teach is that students are not interested in learning facts unless those facts are embedded in challenging or engaging contexts, but they cannot comprehend the contexts without knowing the facts" (p.93).

"This propensity for imitation is important because replication plays a productive role in students' learning to write in any genre" (p.108).

"Obviously, however, social studies teachers do not simply assign students a report to write and send them on their way.  They must MODEL the process of report writing" (p.114).

"By using the writing process in a context subject such as history, children become more aware of what they know and feel comfortable drawing from their knowledge to express growing ideas through print" (p.122).

"Students understand chronology when they are able to determine the dates of historical events and to sequentially arrange the events in time" (p.138).

Connections:

            The concepts of primary and secondary sources were not stressed within elementary school.  My 8^th grade history teacher loved primary sources and every week we would "investigate" primary sources and talk about why the document said what it said, or what the photograph was representing.  I really liked that activity because it was so subjective.  Just as the chapter states, history is subjective.

            I do believe that historical narratives are essential within a quality social studies program.  I can remember reading literature throughout the elementary years and it really helped me understand the people and places of our history.  For example, we read The Diary of Anne Frank, a biography about Harriet Tubman and the Underground Railroad, Mississippi Bridge (as mentioned in the chapter), and other works of historical literature that enhanced the content.  Although I can remember thinking that the books sounded boring (before reading them) I loved them after the first chapter or two.  They were captivating because I knew that they were all true, or based off of a true story that really happened within history.  I cannot remember writing historical narratives but that does not mean that I did not partake in that process.  From the reading in the book, it sounds like an exciting and inviting opportunity for the teacher to integrate subjects.  I would want to reinforce the writing skills of my students through social studies.  Lastly, I am a firm believer of reinforcing the idea of chronology within each unit I teach.  The students must have an awareness and understanding of when events happened in the world in relation to one another so that they may understand why "things" are the way they are today.  Significant events do not occur in a random, unrelated manner.  They are interconnected, just as everything within history is!

Questions:

Chapter 4, Young Geographers: Investigating the People/Place Connection

Summary:

*Geography: "an integrative discipline that brings together the physical and human dimensions of the world in the study of people, places, and environments.  Its subject matter is the Earth's surface and the processes that shape it, the relationships between people and environments, and the connections between people and places" (Geography Education Standards Project, 1994, p. 18).

-       hand in hand with citizenship....an informed citizen must know geography!

-       The essential questions in geography:  where, why, how, what?

-       Geography is a interdisciplinary subject! (integrative experience)

We are living with an ever-connected, globalized world.  It is important for students to understand the people and places around them.  It is a major problem that 1 out of 5 American students cannot locate the United States on an outline map of the world (National Geographic Society, 1992).  Clearly there is a disconnect between school and geography, what is being taught, and what the students are learning.  As a future teacher, geography is essential within the classroom.  The statistics regarding American competence and geography are embarrassing! 

Why study geography?

            1.  the existential reason: where they are in the world

            2.  the ethical reason: physical and human systems and the interdependency of the             living things and the environment

            3.  the intellectual reason:  exciting, interesting, learning the unknown to be better             informed

            4.  the practical reason:  responsibility for the Earth, acquire knowledge about             people/places, make better informed decisions

The 5 Themes of Geography:  location, place, relationships within places, movement, and regions

-  The National Geography Standards' 6 essential elements and 18 standards (page164)

Teachers need to be taught HOW to teach geography in an interesting and worthwhile manner/s

-       Teacher-Guided Discovery: role of facilitator, model, leading students

-       Observing by field trips, virtual trips, video, photos, books, maps, etc. (What do you see?)

-       Speculating (questions and thinking about possible answers)

-       Investigating (gathering phase, people and places, research, interviews, doing something constructive)

-       Extending and Reinforcing (share, communicate, maps, models, table/graphs)

-       Evaluating (personal judgments about students' learning, knowledge of terms and concepts)

-       Independent Projects:  class or small groups, in-depth studies of topic(s)

-       Include: opening, investigating or producing phase, and culminating activity

-       Answers what they want to know, how they will find out, how they will showcase their findings!

MAPS:  The Tools of Geographers

-       Students should decode (read) and encode (make) maps...maps are a form of communication among people and places

-       "graphic representation of the Earth's surface drawn to scale, as seen from above"

-       maps are worthless until you know how to read them and use them with meaning!

-       Teachers need to introduce/use maps based upon the cognitive level and skills of the students (younger children have egocentric predispositions

Skills needed to make maps:

1.  Locating places, 2.  Recognizing and expressing relative location, 3. Interpreting map symbols, 4. Developing a basic idea of relative size and scale, 5. Reading directions, 6. Understanding that the globe in the most accurate representation of the Earth's surface

Initial formal mapping experiences (3-D Models to Flat Maps)

-       model communities, story maps, mental maps

Map skills that need to be stressed/strengthened throughout:

1.  map symbols (sign that stands for something) and show a real map with symbols

2.  direction (help us locate places, orientation)

3.  scale (informal way not mathematical, child's sense of proportion still developing)

4. globe (roundness of the Earth, land and ware areas, poles, major cities, USA)

As children move up in grades, they will use maps as a resources.  They will gather information and solve problems..."reading maps to learn," and the level of sophistication of the maps increases!

Place Location and Direction:  latitude & longitude, relative location (physical factors and human life)

Map Selection with the Classroom:  There are a variety of maps out there for specific reasons...each map portrays something different for a purpose           

            - political maps, physical maps, topographic maps, raised relief maps, weather maps, special-purpose maps, historical maps, road maps

Connections: 

It's interesting to read this book from a teaching perspective.  Many of the ideas they suggest, such as the community models and cultural goods maps, I can remember doing throughout elementary school.  I remember liking activities like these because they were "hands on", "not boring" and interesting.  Additionally, I was very interested in travel, although usually within the continental United States, so I loved learning about places.  Not every student travels with his or her family so it is important for the teacher to make geography stand out.  Geography should transport students to those far away places that they may never visit or experience for themselves.  I can remember many students in my class who had never been on an airplane and I was shocked.  In 4^th grade we made travel brochures for specific countries.  In 5^th grade we held a "world's fair" and groups of students were assigned to different countries.  We studied them for weeks leading up to the fair and then debuted our country at the fair (held in our cafeteria one afternoon).  It was an exciting time of the school year.  Something else I remember, which was a bit corny, was singing "It's a Small World" with my grade on the cafeteria steps during the fair.  Social studies is one subject in particular that stands out from reading, writing, and mathematics. 

Quotes:

"..it is even more important to understand why places are located where they are and how they got there" (pg. 150).

"A good geography program helps students better understand their community and our nation, and their relationships to other places and cultures" (pg. 155).

"Regardless of the grade level, something constructive must be done with the results of the students' research" (pg. 171).

"Independent projects do not normally encompass the complete geography program, but in combination with teacher-guided inquiry, projects will complement systematic instruction by responding to the varying need and interests of children" (pg. 175).

"Thinking of a map as a "picture of a place" provides a better foundation for instruction than trying to get children to understand that a map is an aerial view of a place on the Earth's surface" (pg. 180).

Questions:

Do all social studies curriculums require the use of a textbook, a curriculum kit, or are the lessons created by the teacher?

Campbell, Chapter 5

            The following scientific content categories, by the National Education Science Standards can be and should be, woven throughout students' science notebooks: unifying concepts and processes in science, science as inquiry, physical science, life science, earth and space science, science and technology, science in personal and social perspectives, history and nature of science.  Teachers can observe the learning of students by watching them utilize their notebooks.  No two notebooks will look the same because the students record and gather their thoughts/evidence differently.  Additionally, the notebooks are essential when seeing science as inquiry.  Students are able to reflect upon their previous answers, or questions, and then pose new questions.  The notebooks will help to solidify student awareness of unifying concepts and processes--as they note the changes upon observation and experimentation and as they explain new ideas within their notebooks.  Lastly, students will "...make connections to the larger scientific concepts that they will build on throughout the rest of their education" (71).

"By utilizing science notebooks in writing, discussing, and reflecting, students begin to focus on the scientific content they know as well as how they know it--an important step in developing students' metacognitive thinking" (pg. 65).

Questions, Claims, and Evidence, Chapter 5

            This chapter focuses on student and teacher questions within the classroom.  A science classroom focused on inquiry should be facilitated by questions.  Students are more likely to ask questions as they think critically about the subject at hand.  Likewise, higher-level questioning posed by the teacher has been linked to higher student achievement and better understanding.   Jerry Thacker (1991) has provided suggestions to teachers as a means of supporting students to think critically (page 66).  Additionally, Bloom's Taxonomy serves as a valuable resource to teachers, when they are determining what types of cognitively stimulating questions to ask their class.  Questions should be worded differently, or asked in different ways, to receive the most appropriate answer in alignment with the teacher's objective.  For example, in order to get questions that "investigate" teachers should invest time in activating the students' prior knowledge about a particular topic.  A KWL chart, video clip, or newspaper article may help initiate those "want to know" questions.  The students should be aware of researchable and testable questions, and they should be introduced to Bloom's Questions Starters.  As a teacher, it is up to me to make the information useful and interesting, because after all, "when students are curious about a concept, questions flow naturally" (pg. 77).

"If students are to be in charge of negotiating meaning and understanding, they need to have opportunities to discuss, read, write, think, and explore" (pg. 66).

Ready, Set, Science, Chapter 5

            This chapter addresses the verbal and written ways of collaborative communication within a science classroom.  Just as real scientists share evidence, exchange ideas, communicate, and argue, a classroom should strive to implement those faucets of shared participation in the classroom.  Teachers should guide their students through the processes of communication and support them as they talk about their ideas.  The language of science can be complex and intimidating so it is important to communicate about those ideas frequently.  Argumentation in science in different than the "everyday" argumentation that students might associate with siblings or friends.  "In science, the goals of argumentation are to promote as much understanding of a situation as possible and to persuade colleagues of the validity of a specific idea" (pg. 89).  Students must understand the differences or else a chaotic classroom may erupt as each student engages in his/her form of argumentation.  The IRE format of teacher-student communication does not support argumentation and it dissuades the students from eliciting their higher order thinking skills.  Therefore, teachers should never ask right or wrong questions, and they should strive to involve every student as much as possible.  The table on page 91 provides teachers with suggestions as to how to get the most from their students, communicatively.  Lastly, the classroom norms and rules must apply to students and the teacher must ensure a respectful, inclusive science environment for all his/her students.

"Teachers need support, skill, and persistence to help students grasp the difference between respectful scientific argument and the kind of confrontational, competitive argument they may be used to" (pg. 92).

Connections:

            I would like to comment on chapter 5 Questions, Claims, and Evidence.  I agree that as the students move up through the grades, their questions, or willingness to ask questions decreases.  What or whom is to blame for that decrease?  I think that students have been conditioned enough in the formats of teacher-student communication, that there is little room for those questions to be asked.  Additionally, students sometimes feel that their questions are "stupid" or "too easy"--in this particular case, the teacher must stress that there are NO stupid questions.  Unfortunately, I do not think that most classrooms, science classrooms in particular, are based upon science as inquiry.  Chapter 5 in Ready, Set, Science, addresses the talk format of IRE, Initiation, Response, and Evaluation, respectively.  As the predominate discourse pattern with a classroom, it is hard to change that role in a matter of a few weeks.  As a new teacher I want to be conscientious of the way I talk to my students, and of the talk moves I use.  Since I have not yet been teaching in the classroom, the IRE format may not hold true for me--as long as I do not let it.  I want to ask my students higher-level thinking skills because research has proven that by doing so the students will develop a better understanding of the material.  Lastly, I have been introduced to Bloom's taxonomy throughout my education courses and it can be applied to just about any subject or material.  As a teacher, I will keep the taxonomy nearby my desk, as a checkpoint for my own questions.

Question:

How do you best prepare yourself for a unit or lesson that you do not know much about?   As a teacher you are suppose to hold the knowledge about the subject.  Reading and researching on the internet are my ideas.  Are there any absolutes in your opinion or any content methods that are effective and efficient.?

Science Notebooks, Campbell Chapter 4

            Chapter 4 highlights the discussions with two scientists who have used science notebooks in their respective fields.  Kay is the "chief of interpretation for Lake Mead National Recreation Area" and Alan is a forensic scientist in a toxicology lab.  It was interesting to note their similarities and differences in regards to how they kept, used, and organized their notebooks.  Kay's notebook was a communal notebook that documented everything in the caves, while Alan utilized a variety of notebooks as a means of organizing data and case studies.  Moreover, Kay used the information in her notebook to notice patterns or trends and Alan used notebooks to draw conclusions.  They both agreed that children should use notebooks as a means of recording observations, information, and details that the memory might otherwise forget.  Although Kay could not remember using a notebook in school, she stresses the importance of having students "build" their notebooks with time, and to always ask questions.  Additionally, Alan is a supporter of organization and detail.

"One of the purposes for maintaining science notebooks, in addition to exploring scientific content and literacy, is to replicate the work that scientists do"  (63)

*Important for students to know the purpose of their doings

Questions, Claims, and Evidence, Chapter 4

            This chapter addresses the importance of language, and its many forms, within science inquiry.  While "learning how to use language" focuses on students learning the language patterns of science before engaging in the practices, "using language to learn" focuses on students learning the language as they engage with the science practices.  Research has shown that the latter is more beneficial to students because the language of science "...is built within the context of science through embedded language practices" (46).  Writing should be viewed as a "learning task" and the teacher should provide students with the opportunity to "ideate" within the writing process.  Science notebooks provide the resource necessary for ideating.  Writing should be used as a "heuristic function" within the classroom, and as a summary-writing experience so that students are able to reflect upon their experiences and view their progress over time.  Cambourne (1987) has listed the seven conditions for literacy learning, as shown on page 52.  The science teacher must be able to differentiate learning so that he/she may support the writing science process for every student.  When creating classroom activities and lessons, it is important to keep purpose, function, and audience in mind.  With teaching experience, I feel as though writing within the science classroom will become a smooth and successful experience--the teacher needs to figure out what works and what does not.

"If the understanding of the science and the language is built within the context of science through embedded language practices, then student confidence in both the science and language becomes much greater" (46).

"Finally, I have learned that the idea as teachers is to adapt not adopt.  You have to make the process fit for your age of learners" (43).

Ready, Set, Science! Chapter 4

            This chapter describes the "core concept" teaching approach within a science curriculum.  Given so much information to cover within a limited amount of time, teachers scramble to cover the information that is required for the PSSA tests (in PA, for example).  However, wouldn't it be easier to condense units, lessons, and activities within the core concepts, as presented here.  Theories overlap, concepts relate to one another, and links between disciplines are created and sustained.  The core concepts addressed are atomic-molecular theory of matter, evolutionary theory, cell theory, and Newtonian laws of force and motion.  Their needs to be more research and development about teaching with core concepts.  With time, it is though to help students "deepen their understanding of scientific concepts."  The teacher's knowledge and collaborative efforts are essential in reaching the long-term goals of this particular style of teaching/learning.  The idea of "core concepts" allows the students to link the information throughout their K-8 education.  Learning progressions are essential when implanting core concepts in a science curriculum.  The learning progression example is based upon the atomic-molecular theory.  The lessons and activities have been modified to meet the various grades but they all have the same concept involved.  Although this chapter was rather intimidating and in-depth, a teacher should strive to embrace learning progression and incorporate a variety of short-term goals that can help aid in learning progression. 

"If mastery of a core concept in science is the ultimate educational destination, learning progressions are the routes that can be taken to reach that destination" (63).

Connections: 

            Overall, I really enjoyed the Questions, Claims, and Evidence, and the Science Notebooks readings, but I found it hard to focus on the Ready, Set, Science chapter.  I thought that the chapter was too idealistic about implementing an entirely new science curriculum into schools.  While I agree that core concepts are important, I do see parallels between core concepts and big ideas, or enduring understandings.  I believe that it is up to the teacher to present the material and "big ideas" in a manner that is purposeful and useful.  Additionally, teachers are able to incorporate learning progression throughout their yearlong curriculum.  I believe it is unrealistic because it would be so hard to integrate the K-12 science curriculum, so that educators have to be constantly checking with one another and collaborating.  I do not think that is a bad thing but I think that it squeezes certain interests of teachers out of the picture.  It seems to contradict the readings that we have read so far.  If the curriculum is focused on core concepts, with little wiggle room, then it is hard for teachers to explore and expand upon their students' interests or wants.  Additionally, how likely is it that every teacher will be doing exactly what he/she needs to be doing in order to stay on track with the respective core concepts in the respective grades?  If a teacher would fail to teach, or successfully teach a particular unit, then the students would be lacking understanding.  This approach was a source of cognitive dissidence for me because I had never heard of science being presented in this manner.  However, I am open to new approaches and as I experience science in the classrooms, my views may change.

Question:

With the growth of the internet and the expansion of knowledge, and with the ever increasing technological skills of our students, how do you discourage students from using a computer to find the answers/outcomes to science experiments?  Have you ever encountered this?  Wouldn't that hinder the point of science notebooks because they would be biased in their writings?