Amore.  What the human race searches for.  We are biologically programmed to search for a potential mate and procreate.  But what happens when love goes bad?  Typical stigmas of love: men are cheaters and women are too clingy.  Well, how do we change things about us that have been passed down from our ancestors?

In a time far, far away; men were able to give into his instinct without ramifications of broken hearts.  Once upon a time, men were driven by their instincts to pass on his genes to as many women would bear his children.  Now, if a man tried that, he would be called a player (if he were single) or labeled a cheater (if he were married).  Somewhere between the days of past and now, relationships needed to be defined, whether for the sake of science or a woman's sanity, I'm not really sure which one.

Hot cognition is a "prominent characteristic of human mind" (PSU, 2012, p. 1) in respect to the natural selection process.  Hot cognition refers to the 'hot', action-oriented cognition of human beings; it explains the fight or flight reaction in humans.  In other words, our ancestors who reacted quickly and successfully had a better chance of survival than our ancestors who chose to assess and rationalize the situation (AKA- hot cognition).  This hot cognition now is the leading cause of divorce among couples because it can cause mischief in relationships and form jealousy (PSU, 2012).  Jealousy is a very strong emotional response to a partner's infidelity, whether or not it is actually true (PSU, 2012).  Jealousy is experienced by both males and females with different intensities.  So the next time you find yourself experiencing jealousy take a moment to think about what you are experiencing and why you are experiencing it.  Don't jump to conclusions or use hot cognition.  Leave that to kind of thinking to situations which require an action, not a thought.

 

Reference:

 

PSU. (2012, March 3). Lesson 12: Relationships and Everyday Life. PSYCH 424: Applied Social Psychology. University Park, PA, USA: The Pennsylvania State University World Campus.

 

Schneider, F. W., Gruman, J. A., & Coutts, L. M. (2012). Applied Social Psychology. Los Angelos: Sage Publications, Inc.

 

Who's got stress? Why don't zebras have stress, they run for their lives in the wild all day, every day? Ah, the human condition, the ability to produce introspection, an inner monologue, and cognition. We can perceive our surroundings and interpret them uniquely. A miraculous task, indeed, but a tremendously painful one for some. I work in the mental health field, surrounded by those plagued by their thoughts - I, too, and plagued by my ability to create intelligent thought. Some say ignorance is bliss.
The best way to handle the stress we all encounter in our lives is to approach it accordingly and deal with it in healthy ways. How do you best deal with stress? I, unfortunately, tend to shut down. If someone inquires about what's bothering me, I would rather not discuss it and bury the feelings until they go away. Bad idea! There are so many more constructive ways to confront your stress. Lazarus and Folkman's definition of stress is a "a particular relationship between the person and the environment that is appraised by the person and the environment that is appraised by the person as taxing or exceeding his or her resources and endangering his or her well-being" (p.183). Lazarus and Folkman also describe an approach called the transactional model of stress - the model posits that people's transactions with their environment and people around them include specific situations, events, and people that bring about stressful feelings for them. How do we respond to these perceived threats or challenges? Our response these stimuli are appraisals of our environment (Lazarus & Folkman, 1984).
Coping is the toughest part. This is a conscious confrontation of what stresses us the most. Coping is considered thoughts, feelings, and behaviors we look to use to decrease our stressful feelings (Schneider, et al., 2012).. Coping methods are different for everyone, whether it be listening to music, reading a book, or taking a walk. Coping can either be problem-focused or emotion-focused. Should we challenge our stress by determining the issue that is stressful or deal with our feelings of stress? For me, I think to deal with my feelings of stress is a better pathway to serenity. Unfortunately, many of the problems we are faced with are unchangeable and therefore, we must change ourselves to deal with them.

References
Lazarus, R.L. & Folkman, S. (1984). Stress, appraisal, and coping.Springer Publishing Company.

Schneider, F. W., Gruman, J. A., & Coutts, L. M. (2012). Applied Social Psychology. Los Angelos: Sage Publications, Inc.

Schneider, Coutts, and & Gruman 2013 once stated that "the world is diverse; people have diverse values, diverse behaviors, and diverse customs, and they wear diverse clothing." So why does social diversity within the communities continue to be a trying problem? In order to know why you must know some of the history. America was not always so diverse. Social diversity in terms of gender, race, culture, social class and several other areas have been very debatable issues since I can remember. When you look back at slavery one can associate lack of ethical and cultural diversity. There's also the old stereotypes about what women roles were in regards to the home and work. So why has it taken so long to diversify our society. Diversity has been a slow progress because it is in human nature to be a little scared of change. For example: If women were allowed to work outside the home, who would take care of the children? Who would watch the children while both parents are away? How much would it cost? Would the wife continue to look at the husband as the head of the household if she starts to make the bigger paycheck? All of these questions impeeded the advancement of women but we have gotten there.

Another major issue with diversity is power distance. According to the text, "power distance refers to the extent to which people in a society accept inequalities based on social status, wealth, power, laws and physical attractions." If you can recall, in traditional America you socioeconmical status said alot about you, even in even more ancient times. You have always had your peasants (poverty level), working class (middle class), wealthy (rich individuals). Based off wealth alone, society gives a status. This is even true today.

So what can be accomplished with diversity? What opportunities are opened up? One of the biggest benefits is strengths and talents. Not everyone is alike. This to some may be known as functional diversity. There's a saying that 2 heads are better than one and that holds true here. Once we get past the barriers that man has made and allow ourselves to diversify our live we excel. This has been seen over the years and that is why the nation thrives and grows.  It is because all the members of our society _group members) have a meaningful group identity (Schneider, Coutts, & Gruman, 2013) and are better able to accept our lives and roles, but without judgment to those who are on a lower or higher level as well.

Overall, even though there is much to learn about diversity is a great tool because it allows for the continuing and everchanging exchange of knowlegde, ideas, and growth. It increases innovativeness for both groups and individuals.

Schneider, F. W., Coutts, L. M., & Gruman, J. A. (2013). Applied social psychology, understanding and addressing social and practical problems. Sage Publications, Inc.

Work place efficiency is dependent upon proper hierarchy, communication and mutual respect among coworkers. It is of utmost importance to avoid perceptual biases, improper judgments that you allow to affect your decision-making. A fatal error on those in a position of power is to utilize a selective perception, leading to reprimanding/rewarding some employees more often than other (Schneider, Gruman, & Coutts, 2012). We've all had bad job experiences chock-full of poor communication leading to frustration and resentment among staff. I am currently in a position of three distinct shifts that barely overlap. There is rarely communication other than in the written form and things are often left unmentioned, even if they are particularly important.
Two common errors in perception are the fundamental attritbution bias and the actor-observer difference. In the fundamental attribution bias, we choose to believe that a person's actions are a direct result of their personality flaws, while they tend to be more based upon situational issues. The actor-observer bias implies that we tend to base our successes on our implicit characteristics, while as an observer we tend to attribute successes to the situational factors (Schneider, et al., 2012). Anytime we improperly imply something, downfall is all that can be met.
The importance of communication in the workplace, above all else, is the key to frustration in my workplace. Because the Director and Assistant Director both work the 1st shift, they tend to get the best behavior out of our mental health residents. I work 2nd shift, where most of the inappropriate behavior takes place and we get a lot of "well the Director said we could"s. However, because of our poor communication between shifts, we never heard this from the Director and there is no written word that she would allow such an action. Unfortunately, this comes back down onto us when we say that we have no proof of this permission and then the frustration is a never-ending cycle. Especially in a facility like this, where shifts rotate frequently with barely any time for overlap and discussion, it is of utmost importance to keep communication intact. Unfortunately, we don't, and if documentation is insufficient, things go undealt with.
Because of this frustration, many of my coworkers feel a low level of job satisfaction. In the workplace, hierarchy must be in place, communication and understanding must be utilized, and employee's needs must be met to ensure job satisfaction.

References
Schneider, F. W., Gruman, J. A., & Coutts, L. M. (2012). Applied Social Psychology. Los Angelos: Sage Publications, Inc.

Did you know that just because you are in the same room as others, sociologists will refer to you as a group?  What if all the people in the room had a goal or a purpose as a group?  Well then, that group would be considered a team.  Even if the entire room is filled with strangers, as long as they have a common goal then they can be called a team.

Team cohesion is referred to as "a dynamic process which is reflected in the tendency for a group to stick together and remain united in the pursuit of its instrumental objectives and/or for the satisfaction of member affective needs" (Schneider, Gruman, & Coutts, 2012, p. 116).  Team cohesion is made up of four characteristics: multidimensional, dynamic, affective and instrumental.  To be multidimensional within a team means that the members of the team remain in the group because of the total factors that make up the group.  In other words, the members on the team stay on the team because they enjoy being on the team or they like winning.  To be dynamic means that the team does not change much; the players do not change or the number of members does not fluctuate.  For a team to have affectivity means that they have a particular emotional state of being.  The players are relatively content with one another and well together.  And lastly instrumental, a team needs goals and objectives in order to be cohesive and remain united. (Schneider, Gruman, & Coutts, 2012)

It isn't always unicorns and rainbows when it comes to getting a team to become cohesive.  Schnieder, Gruman and Coutts gives us a wonderful example of how an unstable and rocky group of young athletes for Oxford's rowing team back in 1986 (Schneider, Gruman, & Coutts, 2012).  At first the group didn't work together and they were tremendously unsuccessful as becoming a cohesive team.  But after a final team retreat and some adjustments to the rowing arrangement the group became united using the conceptual nature of team cohesion.  From that point forward the team progressed and ended up with a win that made history.

It is interesting how team work can develop or dissolve depending on the members of the team. If the team doesn't exhibit cohesion characteristics: multidimensional, dynamic, affectivity, and instrumental; then the team has a greater possibility of failing.  If the team is successful at using all these characteristics that make up the conceptual nature of team cohesion, then the odds may very well be with them.

 

References:

Schneider, F. W., Gruman, J. A., & Coutts, L. M. (2012). Applied Social Psychology. Los Angelos: Sage Publications, Inc.

When you're at home, flipping through the channels and trying to find something to watch on television, you may feel like there are TOO MANY options and too many channels to watch. ABC, FX, HBO, CNN, FOX, NBC. So many different channels, right? Wrong. Six major media conglomerates own every form of visual media we are exposed to here in the United States.  Some tie this into the idea of 'the illusion of choice'. Who are these major corporations to whom everything belongs? GE, News-Corp, Disney, Viacom, Time Warner, CBS. Companies like Pixar, ABC, Miramax, Marvel are all owned by Disney. You may have been under the impression that these were all their own companies, but most media companies are pegs in the ultimate six-tiered umbrella of mass media.

What does this mean for us? Iyengar's explanation of framing posits that stories are presented at particular angles by the media to portray facts a certain way (Schneider, Gruman, & Coutts, 2012). If we are only exposed to certain outlets of media, are we only exposed to that particular framing of stories? Are we obtaining the proper facts to make decisions about what is going on around us? What about the stories we don't hear about.

Specifically speaking, news outlets can portray politicians however they see fit. Reporters have been known to utilize a strategy called issue framing - focusing on the issues that are 'important' to the election for a politician, or strategy framing, where the focus is on the motivations behind the positions (Schneider, et al., 2012). Does the media portray a negative outlook on the government? Or do we get the watered down version of information? Whichever the news outlet prefers to deliver is in the information we receive.

What we can do to realign the information we are handed is by doing our own research and keeping up to date on events that the media may choose to ignore, such as drone strikes and bombings in the Middle East.

Here are some links!
http://www.businessinsider.com/these-6-corporations-control-90-of-the-media-in-america-2012-6
http://crx.sagepub.com.ezaccess.libraries.psu.edu/content/19/6/682

References
Schneider, F. W., Coutts, L. M., & Gruman, J. A. (2013). Applied social psychology, understanding and addressing social and practical problems. (pp. 25-40). Thousand Oaks,
California: Sage Publications, Inc.

http://www.businessinsider.com/these-6-corporations-control-90-of-the-media-in-america-2012-6

For another psychology course, an assignment required that the class interviews three different participants of distinctly varying age groups. One of the topics with which we discussed was media and the use of media in our adolescence. I was stunned to see the complete transition that we and adolescents have taken in the utilization of media. Not only the various types of most-used media applies to the changes, but the frequency and availability of media has changed drastically since the 1920s (the oldest participant in the interview was born in 1927).

Music styles have changed significantly, from sweet love songs to promotion of drugs and promiscuity, over the years. How does this affect us in our adolescence? Yes, Bandura's Social Cognitive Theory and its ties to modeling of violent behavior is pertinent to the situation, but what about a generalization of this theory? How has this shift in the messages delivered by our music, television, magazines, galore affected our behavior as a society?

Albert Bandura's Social Cognitive theory posits that there are four distinct steps through we go as a means of learning through modeling behaviors. First, those involved with the media of choice must be paying attention and engaged in the behavior that is being modeled. Then, the representational process, we must remember the modeled behavior. After retaining the information, we move onto the behavioral production process in which we formulate the performance of the behavior that has been observed. Finally, and most importantly, the motivational process mandates whether or not we perform these modeled behaviors, based upon our motivations (Schneider, Gruman, & Coutts, 2012).

The shift in the types of media we absorb and retain mirrors the shift in behavior choices and societal norms we face today. For example, in the 1930s, the standards were to remain abstinent until marriage, to treat a lady like a princess, and to remain faithful to our partners. Now, some types of music (genres) have aimed to discuss and glorify extreme violence, promiscuity, copious amounts of drugs, and illicit means of making money. Not only does violent television affect our behaviors, but music, magazines, and the people the media depicts as people up to whom we aspire.

Here are some links to further investigate the effect of media on behaviors other than violent ones:
http://search.proquest.com.ezaccess.libraries.psu.edu/docview/247006725
http://cmc.sagepub.com.ezaccess.libraries.psu.edu/
http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com.ezaccess.libraries.psu.edu/doi/10.1111/j.1360-0443.1973.tb01255.x/abstract;jsessionid=FFC54EDE9F4C72DCA306E33D059B4808.d04t02

References
Schneider, F. W., Coutts, L. M., & Gruman, J. A. (2013). Applied social psychology, understanding and addressing social and practical problems. (pp. 25-40). Thousand Oaks,
California: Sage Publications, Inc.

Image retrieved from http://img2.timeinc.net/people/i/2013/news/130429/boston-firefighter-600.jpg

Image retrieved from: http://www.myjewishlearning.com/blog/southern-and-jewish/files/2012/08/Behind-Bars-Hands.jpg

Researchers, in a 2007 report, called for a "major justice-system overhaul" noting that the number of people in U.S. prisons has risen eight-fold since 1970, with little impact on crime (Mikkelsen, 2007).  In fact, according to the International Centre for Prison Studies, the United States has the highest incarceration rates in the world (International Centre for Prison Studies, 2013).  Six million people are under correctional supervision in the U.S. (Gopnik, 2012).  (For those of you keeping count, the population of the entire city of New York is around eight million.)

In the 70's there was a strong push to encourage rehabilitation in the prison system but since that time greater emphasis has been placed on punishment with a new perspective that focused on "getting tough on crime" (Day & Marion, 2012).  Unfortunately, it's not working.  Although crime has been dropping recently with increased incarcerations, criminologists cite additional factors that may also be impacting those numbers such as a more settled drug market, an aging population, data-driven policing, and changes in technology that include a big increase in surveillance cameras (Frieden, 2012).  Incarceration does not have the impact on reducing recidivism--repeating crimes after having been incarcerated--that warrants the amount of money spent by the tax payers.  One argument for this trend is a result of poor fit.  Advocates claim that in order to reduce recidivism, the inmate-environment interaction needs to change (Day & Marion, 2012).

A local home furnishing store in my community called, CenterPeace, is trying to do just that.  Their ideology stems from the theory of social cognition, specifically the self-fulfilling prophecy--that people will behave reciprocally according to the way they are treated.  In other words, if you treat a person like a criminal, they will act like a criminal.  It's not to say people who break the law shouldn't suffer consequences; advocates argue that there is a difference between incarceration (focusing on the person) and rehabilitation (focusing on the behavior).  Incarceration just delays the inevitable whereas rehabilitation may actually curb it.

According to their website, "the goals of CentrePeace are to promote Restorative Justice and decrease victimization and crime in our communities by improving the attitudes and capabilities of prison inmates through productive work and training in job and interpersonal skills" (CenterPeace, 2013).  A program evaluation system needs to be implemented to verify whether or not the system is working.  However, this isn't the only alternative approach to incarceration of its kind. (Image retrieved from: http://www.centrepeace.org/images/0509caning.gif)

McNeil Island is an island near Puget Sound in Washington State, referred to as a "prison without walls." It's a place where, if a man obeyed the rules and worked hard, he could learn a trade, improve his mind and become a useful member of society (Carson, 2011).  McNeil Island's Special Commitment Center is adamant in the belief that criminals can be cured.  The reasons are arguable, and some have focused on the geography itself as playing a key role.  One author wrote that "some of the staff say the scenery, remoteness and sky-land-and-water views from McNeil, plus the climate, inoculates the convicts with a deep spiritual feeling that quickly, especially to the sensitive ones, turns their whole lives away from their clouded past and into a new channel" (Carson, 2011).

No matter how you approach the issue, the alternatives seem hopeful.  Even an approach that involves a tamper-resistant tracking device that broadcasts the wearer's location to a monitoring company via GPS (Wood, 2010) could offer more rehabilitative benefits than sitting in a 10x10 cell.  Yes, it only functions as a warning that someone is watching and if you engage in inappropriate behavior, you'll be punished.  However, when you think about it, some might call that an imposed conscience.  Incarceration in America is a failure by almost any measure and although some of these alternatives may seem more radical, in the end, they might just prove more just.

 

References:

Carson, R. (2011, March 27). McNeil Island: The 'prison without walls'. The News Tribune. Retrieved from http://www.thenewstribune.com/2011/03/27/1601465/the-prison-without-walls.html#storylink=cpy

CentrePeace. (2012, April 22). Welcome to CentrePeace. CentrePeace, Inc. Retrieved from http://www.centrepeace.org/

Day, D. M., & Marion, S. B. (2012). Applying Social Psychology to the Criminal Justice System.  In F. W. Schneider, J. A.  Gruman, L. M. Coutts (Eds.), Applied social psychology: Understanding and addressing social and practical problems (2nd ed., pp. 245-272). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications, Inc.

Frieden, T. (2012, October 29). U.S. violent crime down for fifth straight year. CNN. Retrieved from http://www.cnn.com/2012/10/29/justice/us-violent-crime

Gopnik, A. (2012, January 30). The Caging of America: Why do we lock up so many people? The New Yorker. Retrieved from http://www.newyorker.com/arts/critics/atlarge/2012/01/30/120130crat_atlarge_gopnik?currentPage=all

International Centre for Prison Studies. (2013, April 22). Entire world - Prison Population Rates per 100,000 of the national population. International Centre for Prison Studies. Retrieved from http://www.prisonstudies.org/info/worldbrief/wpb_stats.php?area=all&category=wb_poprate

Mikkelsen, R. (2007, November 19). U.S. prison system a costly and harmful failure: report. Reuters. Retrieved from http://www.reuters.com/article/2007/11/19/us-usa-prisons-idUSN1841666120071119

Wood, G. (2010, August 11). Prison Without Walls. The Atlantic. Retreived from http://www.reuters.com/article/2007/11/19/us-usa-prisons-idUSN1841666120071119

The Boston Marathon isn't just an athletic event -- it's a celebration of our democratic republic.  On the third Monday in April each year, the people of Massachusetts celebrate Patriots' Day with the running of the Boston Marathon. It may seem out of place to mark the anniversary of the American Revolution with an enormous road race. But the Boston Marathon is actually a near-perfect embodiment of the meaning of Patriots' Day.

 

Long before the word "marathon" meant a road race; it conjured a great battle of antiquity, an outnumbered Athenian army turning back the might of Persia's empire. To America's founding generations, it was no mere military triumph but a pivotal victory. They saw in Athens the birth of liberty, and in its triumph the defense of republican government. American orators frequently invoked the memory of Marathon, linking the citizen-soldiers of Athens with the militiamen who mustered at Lexington and Concord, facing down an empire in defense of republican liberty.

 

Patriots' Day is a holiday of far more recent vintage than the events it commemorates. Until 1894, the residents of Massachusetts observed Fast Day, a religious occasion of reflection and prayer. By the late nineteenth century, though, Fast Day was "more honored in the breach than in the observance." The early spring holiday came, instead, to mark the opening of the season for field sports and ball games. Eager to end the farce, but careful not to eliminate a cherished day off, Governor Frederic Greenhalge proposed moving the festivities to April 19th and renaming the occasion Patriots' Day. The new holiday would mark the battles of Lexington and Concord, as well as the first bloodshed of the Civil War, as "the anniversary of the birth of liberty and union" (Appelbaum, 2013).

 

People train for months to run a marathon like Boston.  In most cases, they are driven by something larger than themselves.  For instance a memorial marathon was created after the bombing of the Federal Building in Oklahoma City in 1995.  People might run a marathon to remember a loved one who suffered with cancer.  It's a feeling of great accomplishment to cross over that finish line.  In a way it symbolizes the spirit of this country.  It's a feeling of empowerment and a testament to the goodwill and community spirit.  It brings together the fans as well as the runners.

 

On Monday, April 15, 2013, two small but powerful bombs exploded at the finish line of the Boston Marathon.  No one has claimed responsibility for what authorities have labeled a "terrorist" attack.  Some 175 people were injured, and three people, including an 8-year-old boy, were killed.

 

In the days since, local state and federal authorities have sought clues to determine who was responsible for the attack. Authorities have determined that at least one bomb was likely built from a pressure cooker, filled with gunpowder as well as nails and BBs to inflict damage.  Many of the injured received wounds to their lower bodies, which caused the loss of feet and legs (Goldman, 2013). 

 

 

Secretary of State John Kerry, who represented Massachusetts in the United States Senate for 28 years, was overcome with emotion when he spoke on Wednesday about the victims of Monday's bombings at the Boston Marathon.  He said that Patriots' Day, normally a happy time, had turned into "bloody mayhem." Then he said, "Boston is not going to be intimidated by this" (The Lede, 2013).

 

Some people constantly complain that the government is becoming too "big brother" by installing surveillance cameras on the streets, but does the government have a choice?  If it helps bring criminals to justice, then that's what should be done.  The authorities will sort through video to identify the facial image in order to capture the monster who felt the need to kill and injure people who were merely trying to support family and friends running in a marathon. When will it stop? Has it reached a point where we are afraid to be in a crowd of people?   Somehow, we need to find these terrorists who insist on needlessly killing and injuring innocent victims!  This act of terror was obviously carried out on Patriot's Day to send a message to the United States. I hope we can continue to pull together as a nation, track down, and convict those responsible.

 

Where is the empathy of these killers?  What is missing in their lives that they feel it is ok to kill innocent people in the way that they have?  Does empathy, which forms impressions or attributions, serve as a better predictor in other people's behavior?  We still do not know if the older brother influenced the younger brother to help carry out this attack but if even so, where is the empathy in the younger brother?  Impressions are dangerous but the lack of empathy for a fellow human being is more dangerous when predicting human behavior.

 

References:

 

Appelbaum, Y. 2013. The History of the Boston Marathon:  A Perfect Way to Celebrate Patriot's Day. The Atlantic.  Retrieved from:  http://www.theatlantic.com/national/archive/2013/04/the-history-of-the-boston-marathon-a-perfect-way-to-celebrate-patriots-day/275023/

 

Goldman, R. 2013. LIVE UPDATES:  Boston Marathon Bombing, Day 3. ABC News.  Retrieved from:  http://abcnews.go.com/blogs/headlines/2013/04/live-updates-boston-marathon-bombing-day-3/  

 

The Lede. 2013.  April 17 Updates on the Aftermath of Boston Marathon Expolsions. Retrieved from:  http://thelede.blogs.nytimes.com/2013/04/17/updates-on-the-aftermath-of-boston-marathon-explosions/

Anybody that has been the target of a bully understands the feeling of helplessness that overcomes the victims as they attempt to carry on with their everyday lives. Lowen and Hirsch's (2011) film Bully examines how three families attempt to raise their children who are victims of bullying, and deal with the aftermath of a child's suicide as the result of bullying.

One child in particular, Alex Libby was the target of constant physical abuse and verbal threats as he waited for the bus, rode to school, and even at home from his own sisters. At one point in the film, Alex tells his father he was strangled on the bus ride home. His father's reaction was anger towards Alex for letting himself be bullied, but offered no resolution or advise on how to deal with the situation. When Alex's parent finally confront the school's Assistant Principal, Kim Lockwood about the abuse there son is exposed to on a daily basis, she writes it off as not occurring as often as Alex claims and that it much of the "teasing" he is exposed to is simply part of growing up (Lowen & Hirsch, 2011).

Unfortunately, underestimating bullying and writing it off as a rite of passage are common ways adults and children alike misperceive bullying. Limber (2004) states, many people underestimate the frequency with which bullying is occurring, and even if adults witness this behavior taking place, they often are willing to write it off as simply child's play, or as a part of moving through childhood. While Alex was being bullied on the school bus, not one student stepped in to try and stop the behavior. This unfortunately is also common practice as Agatston, Kowalski, and Limber (2007) postulate, when children witness bullying behavior, they are often afraid to speak up for fear of being punished Children may also lack the courage to speak out when they witness bullying for fear of becoming a target

Social-cognitive errors played a role in allowing the bullying of Alex Libby to continue. Both Alex's parents and Kim Lockwood displayed belief perseverance by believing the occurrences weren't as frequent as they actually were. Schneider, Gruman, and Coutts (2012) state, "Belief perseverance means that people tend to maintain their initial ideas or beliefs despite exposure to disconfirming evidence." (p. 370) Even though Alex's parents knew their son was being bullied, they would believe him when they were told nothing had happened to him on a given day even though the opposite was true. Kim Lockwood personally witnessed repeated acts of bullying, yet refused to believe there was an issue.  

As stated above, one of the common misconceptions about bullying is the frequency with which it occurs (Limber, 2004). Before an intervention plan can be implemented, it is important that everyone understands there is a problem and that it is occurring more than one might realize. As it stands now however, the longer we ignore the problem, the worse it will get.

References

Agatston, P. W., Kowalski, R., Limber, S. P. (2007). Students' perspectives on cyber bullying. Journal of Adolescent Health, (41)6 SUPPLEMENT, S59-S60

Limber, S. P. (2004). Implementation of the Olweus bullying prevention program in American schools: lessons learned from the field.  In D. L. Espelage, & S. M. Swearer (Eds.), Bullying in American schools: a social-ecological perspective on prevention and intervention (pp. 351-363). Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates

Lowen, C. (Producer), & Hirsch, L. (Director). (2011). Bully [Motion Picture]. United States: The Weinstein Company.

Schneider, F. W., Gruman, J. A., & Coutts, L. M. (Eds.). (2012). Applied social psychology: Understanding and addressing social and practical problems. Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE Publications, Inc.

 

When most people think of Orlando, Florida, their minds almost always produce images of Mickey Mouse and Cinderella's Castle at the Magic Kingdom. What most people don't realize and may not see, is the large homeless population that calls Orlando home. With a fairly mild climate year round, it is not uncommon to see groups of a half dozen or so homeless individuals sleeping under bridges and overpasses while driving to work. The 408 toll road and Interstate 4 run right through the heart of downtown Orlando and during morning rush hour, it is customary to see the homeless population holding signs asking for help as one exits these major roads. Some people give their spare change and chat with these individuals while waiting for the light to change, and some just sit at the light looking right through these individuals, as if they are invisible, ignoring their pleas for help. What caused these individuals to become homeless is a mystery to most, and many people automatically assume it is because the individual would rather look for a handout than work for an honest pay.

The sad truth however, is that many of the individuals that make these assumptions as they stare through the pleading faces of those asking for help, are only one missed paycheck, one unexpected life event from being in the same situation. Unfortunately, fundamental attribution error causes most to see homelessness as a result of overestimating the flaw in a person's character while ignoring or underestimating the environmental factors that played a role in that person depending upon the kindness of others in order to survive (Schneider, Gruman, & Coutts, 2012). Fundamental attribution error has caused American's to view homelessness as a choice and as a result finding solutions for poverty often take a backseat to other policy areas.

In order to create a policy aimed at reducing poverty and homelessness in the United States, an intervention strategy should be put in place to help reduce a person's tendencies to make the fundamental attribution error. Research conducted by Riggio and Garcia (2009), suggests the best way to reduce fundamental attribution error is through the use of real life examples while emphasizing powerful social and situational factors that contributed to the example. Requiring students in the 9th through 12th grades to participate in volunteer activities at homeless shelters and soup kitchens is one way to implement an intervention strategy aimed at reducing fundamental attribution error. By exposing students to the realities of poverty within their own communities and discussing the situational factors surrounding poverty, there should be a reduced tendency to commit the fundamental attribution error. By requiring the students to volunteer several times per year throughout the course of their high school careers, it is likely the impact will be life long, and those students will continue to consider the environmental and social factors associated with a situation.

References

Riggio, H. R., & Garcia, A. L. (2009). The power of situations: Jonestown and the fundamental attribution error. Teaching of Psychology, 36(108), 108-112. doi: 10.1080/00986280902739636

Schneider, F. W., Gruman, J. A., & Coutts, L. M. (Eds.). (2012). Applied social psychology: Understanding and addressing social and practical problems. Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE Publications, Inc.

Situational variables play a key role in determining a person's overall health and well-being. Whether a patient is recovering from an illness or seeking medical attention, it is important not to underestimate the role situational variables play. Studies by Kane, Lum, Cutler, Dagenholtz, and Yu (1976), as well as studies by Langer and Rodin (1976), serve to support the importance of situational variables in healthcare.

Kane et al. (1976) conducted a study of dementia patients residing in a residential style nursing home (The Green House) where a premium was placed on privacy and individual growth rather than therapeutic treatments. They compared the overall health and well being of The Green House residents to residents living in nursing homes more traditional in nature (Cedars and Trinity). The traditional nursing homes were lacking in the level of privacy and attention to individual growth that was stressed at Green House (Kane et al., 2007). The results indicate residents of Green House received at least an equal level of quality of care as residents at Trinity and Cedars, with a greater increase of functional status. Additionally, the residents of Green House reported a higher quality of life on nearly all measures than the residents at Cedars and an nearly half of the measures as compared to the residents of Trinity.

Langer and Rodin's (1976) study examined the role personal responsibility plays in the improvement of quality of life of elderly patients. Their study showed that patients who were allowed to take responsibility for themselves as well as make decisions on their own, showed a noticeable improvement in a sense of well-being, alertness, and participation over their counterparts who were not afforded the same levels of responsibility and independence.

 Other situational variables have also been proven to affect the health of Americans. Media, family, peer influences, level of stress, ability to cope with stress, social support, and level of education have all shown to have an effect on the overall health of Americans. Additionally, a person's perception of their own health, expectations of treatment, expectations of illness, and level of self-efficacy have been shown to play a role in the health of Americans and how they identify a need for and pursue treatment options (Schneider, Gruman, & Couts, 2012). Because of this, it is important that intervention plans aimed at the health care deliver system should be careful to consider not only the medical needs of the patient, but also the social and situational needs of the patient as well.

 

References

Kane, R. A., Lum, T. Y., Cutler, L. J., Degenholtz, H. B. & Yu, T.-C. (2007).Resident Outcomes in Small-House Nursing Homes: A Longitudinal Evaluation of the Initial Green House Program. Journal of the American Geriatrics Society, 55, 832-839. doi: 10.1111/j.1532-415.2007.01169.x 

 

Langer, E. J., & Rodin, J. (1976). The effects of choice and enhanced personal responsibility for the aged: A field experiment in an institutional setting. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 34(2), 191-191-198. doi:10.1037/0022-3514.34.2.191 

 

Schneider, F. W., Gruman, J. A., & Coutts, L. M. (Eds.). (2012). Applied social psychology: Understanding and addressing social and practical problems. Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE Publications, Inc.

Why do students attend high school? The obvious answer to this question is because they have to; but what if students attended high school because they wanted to? The classroom setting is a breeding ground for overjustification effect and developing extrinsically oriented motivation in today's student. An emphasis on achieving good grades, coupled with the pressure to succeed at a high level has been placed squarely on the shoulders of students by their parents, teachers, and school administrators. Public policies such as the no child left behind act only serve to strengthen extrinsic behaviors as school administrators push children to their limits in order to meet the goals of the program. While the act was intended to improve education levels in children, it may in fact be doing the opposite. When students who enjoy learning about a subject because of internal reasons are suddenly exposed to external justification for learning (grades, gold stars, awards), they quickly attribute their reasons to completing a task to the external rewards they receive. In other words, the internal justification for completing a task is no longer reason enough when rewards are introduced. Schneider, Gruman, and Coutts (2012) identify this as the overjustification effect and it can have detrimental effects on the amount of time a person spends on an activity they once enjoyed.

 

Anderson, Manoogian, and Reznick (1976) conducted a simple research study that supports this theory. Preschool children were asked to draw a picture and the mean number of minutes spent drawing was recorded. The students were then placed into one of three groups; verbal praise for their drawing (intrinsic motivation), an award for completing their drawings, and money for completing their drawings. The students were then asked to complete another drawing and again, the mean number of minutes spent drawing was recorded. Students who received either a reward or money (extrinsic rewards) for their drawings spent less time completing their drawings than on their pre-test drawings, while students who received verbal confirmation and completed drawings because of intrinsic motivations spent more time than on their original drawings (Anderson, et al., 1976).

 

So how should we be approaching students in the classroom? Guay, Ratell, and Chanal (2008) state that an emphasis should be placed on intrinsic rewards while developing autonomous behavior. Their research showed improvements in behavioral, cognitive, and affective outcomes of students including, increased achievement, lower drop out rates, improved retention of information, and improved satisfaction with school overall. Guay, Ratell, and Chanal (2008) summarize their findings as follows:

The more students endorse autonomous forms of motivation, the higher their grades are, the more they persist, the better they learn, and the more they are satisfied and experience positive emotions at school. Moreover, research using a person-centered approach has shown that a motivational profile characterised [sic] by high autonomous and controlled motivation is generally associated with positive outcomes, but that the most positive educational outcomes ensue from a purely autonomous profile. (p. 237)

Maybe it is time students started attending school because they enjoyed it rather than because it is something they have to do.

References

 

Anderson, R., Manoogian, S. T., & Reznick, J. S. (1976). The undermining and enhancing of

intrinsic motivation in preschool children. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology,

34(5), 915-922. doi:http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.34.5.915

 

Guay, F., Ratelle, C. F., & Chanal, J. (2008). Optimal learning in optimal

contexts: The role of self-determination in education. Canadian Psychology/Psychologie Canadienne, 49(3), 233-240. doi: http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/a0012758

 

Schneider, F. W., Gruman, J. A., & Coutts, L. M. (Eds.). (2012). Applied social psychology:

Understanding and addressing social and practical problems. Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE Publications, Inc. 

 

The wholesale distributor for whom I work recently purchased several locations in the South Carolina market. Our home base, and the majority of our locations (12 of 15) are located in Florida, where I work as an area manager in the Orlando market. Several employees, including myself, were asked to attend a sales blitz in the company's newly acquired Charleston, South Carolina market. Seven Florida area managers descended upon the Charleston market, breaking up into four, two-man teams (I was paired with the Charleston area manager) in an attempt to visit 150 customers over a two-day period. The objective of the sales blitz was to inform the customers of the recent acquisition, how this would impact the Charleston market, learn more about the customers and how we could better serve them, and finally, promote an open house that was about one week away.

 

As each team went into their respective areas, it quickly became apparent that many of the customers were wary of the presence of the Florida area managers. At one point, one of the customers asked where I was visiting from, and when I replied, Orlando, he stated I was a "Florida Yankee Jew". When I asked what he meant by that, he gave me an explanation that indicated he believed all people who lived in Orlando were from Brooklyn, New York. Because Brooklyn is an area with a large Jewish population and is located north of the Mason-Dixon Line, I was a "Florida Yankee Jew". The customer indicated he didn't like Yankees and didn't trust Jewish people (It should be noted, I am neither Jewish, nor have I ever lived in any part of New York). I have to admit, I was more than a little surprised to see someone, especially a prominent businessman, display this level of discord with a person because of his or her possible ethnic or demographic background. According to Schneider, Gruman, and Coutts (2012), this is an example of racism; "bias against an individual or group of individuals based on the individual's or group members' race/ethnicity" (p. 333).

 

My experience with this person left me thinking about the amount of work that remains in order to eliminate racism and provide equal opportunity for people of different backgrounds. While Schneider, Gruman, and Coutts (2012) indicate education programs aimed at bringing awareness to diversity have been successful with student targets, the question remains; how does one reach a person such as this business owner? Perhaps the state should require individuals who are seeking a business license to complete diversity training. Observing the effectiveness of the training may prove to be difficult however, as most individuals are not likely to report themselves as being racist or biased towards others. One possible measure that could be utilized is analyzing the backgrounds of the business owner's employees. Unfortunately, this brings another set of challenges. If for instance, a business owner is lacking cultural diversity within his or her organization, an argument could be made that they simply hired the most qualified person that was available at that time. The sad truth however, is that racism and bias towards other people still exists and our country has a long way to go in eliminating these attitudes from society.

References

Schneider, F. W., Gruman, J. A., & Coutts, L. M. (Eds.). (2012). Applied social psychology:Understanding and addressing social and practical problems. Thousand Oaks, CA:SAGE Publications, Inc.